Austin’s Speech Act Theory

What is speech act: Brainstorming


Every word belonged to human language represents to the actual world, which means, there must be things, actions, or even characteristics in the actual world that can be seen, done, or  felt when you say the words. Just say the word ‘table’, it represents a thing made of wood usually has square shape and four legs which function as the pair of chair. You can see the thing  in the actual world, and of course in your mind there is an image about how the ‘table’ looks like. Or the word ‘walk’, you move from one place to another place by foot. The action is there, and it can be seen and done. Or the word hot, cool, beautiful, etc, they all have the same case since all of them can be felt directly in the actual world.


However, have you ever heard the word promise, command, suggest, advise, conratulate, etc? Can you see the particular action done by someone to refer to those? How is the form movement of the body? Can you imagine how the action represented by those words look like? Those words are called speech acts, that is language as action, which means by uttering the word you do the action, you are not just saying something but are actually doing something. If you say “get out of here!” actually you do command action, or “you should do this instead of that.” By uttering that sentence you perfom an action that is sugesting, or etc.


It is important to note that the utterence/sentence category that can be used to refer to speech act must be performative utterence/sentence.


You can perform at least three different kinds of act when you speak. There are locutionary act (as Searly called it utterence act) refers to the fact that you must use words and sentences if you are saying anything, illocutionary act refers to the intent of the speaker, and perlocutionary act refers to an act will be done by the heare as the respon to the locution and illocution.


Therefore, the utterence “get out of here!” has locution act: get out of here!, in which the illocution is commanding, and the perlocution will be the hearer leaves the room.
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See also:

• Austin's Speech Act Theory
• Performative vs. Constative Sentence
• Austin’s five categories of performative

Love is pain

People who had never suffered for love, never actually knew love. If it never hurt, it was not love.
Love opens the closed, revives the unrealized, brightens the invisible, and glorifies the unappreciated.
Love catapults the hopes into the sky .
But, if it is disappointed, love  Heartbreaks to its deepest.



Orang yang tak pernah menderita karena cinta, sesungguhnya tak pernah mengenal cinta. Jika rasa itu tak pernah melukai, pasti itu bukan cinta.
Cinta membuka yang selama ini tertutup, menyadarkan yang belum pernah disadari, mencemerlangkan yang tak terlihat, dan memuliakan yang tak terhargai.
Cinta melambungkan harapan ke langit.
Tapi, jika ia dikecewakan, cinta menyayat hati sampai ke dasarnya.

Deep Structure vs. Surface Structure

One of the most important concepts proposed by Chomsky is the concept of surface and deep structure. The TGG paradigm claims that the concept of structural analysis proposed by Structuralism paradigm is too swallow, it only reaches the level of surface structure. Surface structure can be defined as the syntactic form they take as actual sentences. In the other words, it is forms of sentences resulted from  modification/ transformation. Consider these sentences:

(1)   You close the door.

(2)   The door is closed by you.

(3)   Close the door!

The first sentence is active, second is passive, and the last is imparative. However, if you take a look those closely, you will find that those three are very closely related, even identical.  They seem to be identical, since they have the same undelying abstract representation that is called deep structure. It is defined as an abstract level of structural organization in which all the elements determining structural interpretation are represented. If you want to analyze the relation of those three sentences, the first you have to know about the deep structure of them, since deep structure is the input of transformation rules. We cannot apply transformation rules if you don’t  have deep structure. transformation rules are sets of rules which will change or move constitiuents in the structures derive from the phrase structure rules.

e.g.

The DS (deep structure)

(2)	SD (structure describtion)  : SC (Structural change)      : SS (Surface structure)       :	1 2 3 4 3 4 + be 2+en 1 The door is closed by you
Note: the SC is passive transformation rules
(3)	SD: SC: SS:	1 2 3 4 0 2 3 4 Close the door!
Note: 0 is deletion

From the above example, it can be concluded that deep structure then is a pure representation of thematic relations. Anything which is interpreted as the subject or object of a given predicate will be in the subject or object position of that predicate at Deep structure no matter where it is found at Surface structure.

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See also:

Chomsky's Generative Linguistics: An Introduction

Linguistic Competence and Linguistic Performance

Deep Structure vs. Surface Structure
5 Definitions of Deep Structure

Phrase Structure Rules

Transformation Rules

Tree Diagram

Grice's Cooperative Principle

The Gricean cooperative principle refers to the concept of the philosopher Grice about the cooperation between speakers in using the maxims. The cooperative principle makes our contribution such as it is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which we are engaged. Levinson (1985) states that the Gricean cooperative principle is construed as a theory of communication; it has the interesting consequence that it gives an account of how communication might be achieved in the absence of any conventional means for expressing the intended message. A corollary is that it provides an account of how more can be communicated, in his rather strict sense of non-naturally meant, than what is actually said.


In sorting out the different conversations can be very complex. There are, however, four maxims that can be regarded as general principles in all conversations, those are:


(1) The Maxim of Quantity, try to make your contribution as informative as is required, in the other words, do not make your contribution more or less informative than is required;
Example of violation:
A: What time is it?
B: It's two a'clock, in fact it's four pass two, and now it's Sunday.


(2) The Maxim of Quality, try to make your contribution one that is true. At this point, to make your utterances understandable, you have to avoid saying something that you believe to be false or lack adequate evidence; 
Example of violation:
A: What is the Capital City of Indonesia?
B: I believe it's Bogor, or maybe Jakarta, Indonesia has wide territory. 


(3) The Maxim of Relevance, try to make your contributions relevant. It means you have to say some information which is related to the topic; 
Example of violation:
Mom: Have you done your homework?
Son: My bicycle is broken mom. 


(4)The Maxim of Manner, try to make your utterance as clear, as brief, and as orderly as one can in what one says, and avoid obscurity and ambiguity. 
Example of violation:
"It’s the taste" (ads of Coca cola) 

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See also:
Grice's cooperative principle 
Cooperative Principle: Implicature
Cooperative Principle: Flouting Maxims
Hedging Maxims     

Basic Versification of Poetry (Part 2)

Rhyme

Rhyme in poetry refers to the identity of sound at the ends of lines.

l  Perfect rhyme vs. half-rhyme

Perfect rhyme occurs when the stressed vowels following differing consonants sounds are identical.

Half-rhymeoccurs when the final consonant sounds are identical

e.g.

Thou still unravish’d bride of quietness,

Thou foster- child of silence and slow time,

Sylvan historian, who canst thus express

A flowery tale more sweetly then our rhyme:

Note:   The green italic words are the examples of half-rhyme

             The red italic words are the examples of perfect rhyme

 l  Masculine vs. feminine

Masculine: when the final syllables are stressed.

e.g. inquired-desired

Feminine: when the final syllables are unstressed

e.g. flowers – bowers

Internal rhyme: the rhyming words found within the line.

e.g.

the splendor falls on the castle walls

The long light shakes across the lakes

Rhyme scheme: the pattern of rhyme in a poem or stanza

e.g. 

a-b-a-b, b-a-b-a, etc.

At daybreak on the hill they stood
That overlooked the moor,
And thence they saw the bridge of wood,
A furlong from their door.

Alliteration (initial rhyme): The same sound starts several words.

e.g.

Far winter’s rains and ruins are over,

And all day the season of snows and sins;

The day dividing lover and lover,

The light and loses, the night that wins.

l  Assonance vs. consonance

Assonance: the use of identical vowel sounds surrounded by different kinds of consonant sounds

e.g. bird - thirst

Consonance: the use of different vowel sounds surrounded by same kinds of consonant sounds.

e.g. wood-weed

Blank verse: unrhymed iambic pentameter

e.g.

. . . and when I have required
Some heavenly music (which even now I do)
To work mine end upon their senses that
This airy charm is for, I'll break my staff
Bury it certain fathoms in the sea,
And deeper than did ever plummet sound
I'll drown my book.

(William Shakespeare, The Tempest, 1611)

Free verse: Rhymed or unrhymed poetry composed without attention to conventional rules of meter.

e.g.

I love the way I feel today

But how I know the sun will fade

Darker days seem to be

What will always live in me

But still I run

It's hard to walk this path alone

Hard to know which way to go

Will I ever save this day

Will it ever change

Stanzaic Forms

q  Couplet: Two successive lines of verse that form a single unit because they rhyme

q  Triplet/ tercet: stanza composed three lines.

q  Quatrain: stanza composed four lines.

q  Sestet: stanza composed six lines.

q  Rhyme royal: stanza composed seven lines.

q  Octave: stanza composed eight lines.

q  Sonnet: stanza composed fourteen lines.

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See also:

• The Nature of Poetry
• Basic Versification of Poetry (Part 1)
• Basic Versification of Poetry (Part 2) 
• The Nature of Literature

Basic Versification of Poetry (Part 1)

Rhythm in poetry refers to the patterns of repeated sounds.

e.g.

Born to a throne, stronger than Rome

But Violent prone, poor people zone

Note: The italic words are the examples of rhythm

Feet: In accentual-syllabic versification the basic unit of measurement is known as the foot. The foot consists of one accented syllable accompanied by one or two unaccented syllables.

How to determine the feet in a line?

1. Determine how many syllables are there in the line;
2. Read naturally the sentence (in reading there must be stressed and unstressed syllables, these will be used to determine the kind of feet possesed by the line).

e.g.

 

Kinds of Feet

•    Iambic: 1 unaccented followed by 1 accented

e.g.

•  Trochaic: 1 accented followed by 1 unaccented

e.g.

• Dactylic: 1 accented followed by 2 unaccented

e.g.

• Anapestic: 2 unaccented followed by 1 accented

e.g. 

• Spondaic: 2 unaccented

e.g.

     

Metrical lines

l  Metric: the art or study of using meter/ syllabic pattern in poetry;

l  After discovering the pattern of the feet, the next step is to determine the meter;

l  To know the meter, just count how many patterns are in the line and put one of the name of line below after the name of the pattern.

e.g.

• The sentence is called iambic, since it has pattern one unstressed followed by one stressed;
• It has four feet, so that the meter is tetrameter;
• So the name of the above line is iambic tetrameter.

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See also:

• The Nature of Poetry
• Basic Versification of Poetry (Part 1)
• Basic Versification of Poetry (Part 2) 
• The Nature of Literature

The Nature of Poetry

The nature of poetry is always problematic and mysterious. Poets, readers, critics, and scholars define poetry based on their own definitions. However, the common conception that is used to refer to the poetry is that, form of literature, spoken or written, that emphasizes rhythm, other intricate patterns of sound and imagery, and the many possible ways that words can suggest meaning. The word itself derives from a Greek word, poesis, meaning “making” or “creating.” Whereas ordinary speech and writing, called prose, are organized in sentences and paragraphs, poetry in its simplest definition is organized in units called lines as well as in sentences, and often in stanzas, which are the paragraphs of poetry. The way a line of poetry is structured can be considered a kind of garment that shapes and clothes the thought within it. The oldest and most longstanding genres for classifying poetry are epic, a long narrative poem centered around a national hero, and lyric, a short poem expressing intense emotion.

Poetry is like other literary works such as prose and drama, it also has its own structures, purposes, languages and general characteristics. Commonly, poetry written in verse in which consists of lines and stanza. According to Reaske (1966) at least poetry also contains of sounds devices such as rhyme, rhythm, repetition, meter, and onomatopoeia and speech of language such as simile, metaphor, hyperbole, and personification. All of the elements of parts of poetry can be used to find information or ideas in comprehending and appreciating it. The readers can start to analyze poetry or poem from poetic devices, types, sound devices, structural devices and all aspects of poetry that can be analyzed. 

Based on some definitions above, it cannot be concluded that poetry has particular definition. When readers analyzed or appreciated poetry is not focused on the definition. The essence of poetry remains elusive and open to a range of definitions. The more important things of comprehending and appreciating the poetry are what the contents of poetry. Schakel and Ridl, (1997:12) state that reading poetry differs from reading a newspaper or a memo and a book. Reading poetry is a process of finding particular information, ideas, experiences, message, values and themes for pleasure or serious analysis. Poems also lead the readers feel intensely, to experiences deeply, and often to extend our understanding of experiences different from the readers’ experience or to affirm own ideas and experiences of the readers.

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See also:

• The Nature of Poetry
• Basic Versification of Poetry (Part 1)
• Basic Versification of Poetry (Part 2) 
• The Nature of Literature

Linguistic Competence and Linguistic Performance

There are so many controversies among linguists from time to time, one of them is structuralism vs. generativism. Structuralism was once introduced by Ferdinand de Saussure, in which almost all the concepts of language are strongly influenced by behaviorism paradigm which argues that human mind is just like "blank paper" when they are born (tabula rasa). Based on this concept, structuralism believes that the acquisition of language is learned, which means that  the language abilities possessed by  human is gained by process of learning from surroundings. In addition, they also believe that language is just like a building, which means that it is built from the small parts to create the bigger one. language is built from sentences, sentences are from clauses, clauses are from phrases, and so ford, up to phones.

Meanwhile, generativism which was introduced by Noam Avram Chomsky argues that in the matter of language, the concepts proposed by structuralism are too simple. If we want to understand how language is mastered and used by human, we have to separate what is called cognitive system, that is a system underlying the ability of human to use and master language. In other words, human since they were born unconsciously have system of language in their brain (competence). That is why this paradigm argues that language is innate not learned.  

Generative grammar is founded on the idea that linguistics should create a "grammar" that allows us to (in theory) generate every possible sentence in a language using a set of rules. It  is simply an abstract theory that allows us to make a list (in theory) of all sentences, given the time to do so (which would be infinite-- there are infinitely many possible sentences). With tricks like recursion, it is in theory possible to design such a grammar, although so far no perfect grammar for any language has actually been written. And in theory, such a grammar also exists in our heads as "linguistic competence", while something else explains how we actually use it to speak, an action called "linguistic performance"-- and that can be imperfect, with speech errors, etc.

....................................................................

See also:

Chomsky's Generative Linguistics: An Introduction

Linguistic Competence and Linguistic Performance

Deep Structure vs. Surface Structure
5 Definitions of Deep Structure

Phrase Structure Rules

Transformation Rules

Tree Diagram

Lamborghini Gallardo

Lamborghini Gallardo,Lamborghini Gallardo Wallpaper,Lamborghini Gallardo Pictures

The First Linguist Recorded by History

Herodotus was a historian who lived in the 5th century BC (484 BC-425 BC). He is known because of his writing 'history', a collection of stories about different places and people that he collects during his travels. Because of his work, he is often regarded as the 'father of history'.


The scientific contribution of the Greeks in the linguistic world was in their carefulness of observation on the language development as the result of the trade interaction and political diplomacy between the Greeks and other countries and also the occupation of the colonies. Such interactions brought about a change of language in terms of lexical (borrowing), sentence patterns, and changes the meaning of an utterance. As a result, Greek dialect which used to be only one  (monolect) turns into many dialects (multilect). The first study of Greek dialects was introduced by Herodotus.


The development of the Greek dialects remained a problem to be solved, which should be the dialect used by the scholar? In studying the various dialects of the Greek language, Herodotus made an observation of foreign words which had been mixed into Greek language. Herodotus suggested the scholars to use the dialect used by Homeric scholars who have truly mastered the works of Homer, of which the most famous are the Iliad and Odyssey. He realized that the language used in the works of Homer did not follow the dialects used by the Greeks at the time, in other words, the language used in the works of Homer in Greek were still 'original' which was not yet 'contaminated' by foreign languages​​. These works occupied a high position in the world of Greek education at that time, scholars had made ​​it as a source of reference in character education.

The Nature of Literature

Literature can be defined as an expression of human feelings, thoughts, and ideas whose medium is language, oral and written. Literature is not only about human ideas, thoughts, and feelings but also about experiences of the authors. Literature can be medium for human to communicate what they feel, think, experience to the readers. 


There are many ways to define the term ‘literature’ based on different point of views such as literature is art, literature is language, literature is aesthetic, literature is fictional, literature is expressive, and literature is affective. Literature is everything in print. It means any writing can be categorized as literature. Another way of defining literature is to limit it to ‘great books’ which are ‘notable for literary form or expression’. Ellis (1989:30) defines literature as the verbal expression of human imagination and one of the primary means by which a culture transmits itself. Based on thus definitions, literature contains universal ideas, human imagination, and human interest that written in any writings and use language as medium to express human’s ideas and feelings.


In conjunction with literature as art form,  it is broken down into imaginative literature and non-imaginative literature. Imaginative literature and non-imaginative literature are distinguished based on the particular use made of language in literature. Language of imaginative literature is highly ‘connotative’ and language of non-imaginative literature is purely ‘denotative’. The connotative meaning means words that used in literary works have feeling and shades of meaning that words to tend to evoke while denotative meaning means that the words refer to meaning in dictionary. 


The language that is used by literature differ form ordinary spoken or written language. Literature uses special words, structures, and characteristics. Primarily the language of literature differs from ordinary language in three ways: (1) language is concentrated and meaningful,   (2) its purpose is not simply to explain, argue, or make a point but rather to give a sense of pleasure in the discovery of a new experience, and (3) it demands intense concentration from the readers. It indicates that the language of literature has originality, quality, creativity, and pleasure.


In this case, to differentiate between the literary texts and non-literary texts (imaginative and non-imaginative), Kleden (2004:7-8) states that literature can be differentiate based on the kind of meanings that exist in a text. Literary text consists of textual meaning and referential meaning and non-literary text only consists of referential meaning. The textual meaning is the meaning that is produced by the relationship of text itself. While referential meaning is meaning that is produced by the relationship between internal text and external text (world beyond the text). 


From the use of language and the existence of meaning in literary works, it can be concluded that poetry, prose and drama are put in literary works article, journalism, news, bibliography, memoir, and so on can be categorized as non-literary works. 

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See also:

• The Nature of Poetry
• Basic Versification of Poetry (Part 1)
• Basic Versification of Poetry (Part 2) 
• The Nature of Literature

Discourse Deixis

Discourse deixis deals with the orientation in the text through the writer or the speaker, the relation of the text passages to the current utterance either as a head of time or past, forthcoming or simultaneous. It encodes reference to portions of the unfolding discourse in which the utterance is located (Levinson, 1983, p.62). It means that discourse deixis is deictic reference to a portion of a discourse relative to the speaker’s current location in the discourse, such as: above, below, last, previous, proceeding, next or following (usually used in texts) and this, that, there, next, last (usually used in utterances).

In spoken or written discourse, there is frequently occassion to refer to earlier or forthcoming segments of the discourse. Since discourse unfolds in time, it is natural to use temporal deictic terms to indicate the relation of the referred to to the temporal location of the present utterance in the discourse. But spatial terms are also often employed. Reference to parts of of a discourse which can only be interpreted by knowing where the current coding or receiving point is, are clearly deictic in character (Asher 1994, p.856).

Levinson (1983, p.85-86) added that discourse deixis should be distinguished from a related notion that of anaphora. Moreover, discourse deixis shares with anaphora and cataphora the capacity to function as a text cohesion device. As we noted, anaphora concerns with the use of a pronoun to refer to the same referent as some prior term. Anaphora can hold within sentences, across sentences, and across at speaking in a dialogue. Deictic or other referring expressions are often used to introduce a referent, and anaphoric pronouns are used to refer to the same entity thereafter. However, it is important to remember that deictic and anaphoric usages are not mutually exclusive. Therefore, in principle the distinction is clear: when a pronoun refers to a linguistic expression itself, it is discourse deictic. When a pronoun refers to the same entity as a prior linguistic expression refers to, it is anaphoric.

In other words, discourse deixis is an expression used to refer to certain discourse that contain the utterance or as a signal and its relations to surrounding text.

A. Person Deixis

B. Place Deixis

C. Time Deixis

D. Discourse Deixis

E. Social Deixis
 ...................................................................................
See also:
Deixis

2012 Jaguar XF

2012 Jaguar XF - Specifications

4 Door Sedan Quick Specs

Engine : Gas V8, 5.0L

EPA Class : Midsize Car

Style Name : 4dr Sdn

Drivetrain : Rear Wheel Drive

Passenger Capacity : 5

Passenger Doors : 4

Body Style : 4dr Car

Transmission
6-speed automatic transmission -inc: Jaguar Sequential Shift, JaguarDrive rotary gear selector w/drive & sport modes, steering wheel mounted shift paddles.

2012 Jaguar XF Price : $53,000

2012 Jaguar XF - Review

With the introduction of the XF lineup a few years ago—and reverberated by the new full-size XJ sedan last year—Jaguar has made a clean break from the overtly traditional shapes of the past, moving from ornate to rakish. Now for 2012, Jaguar has given the XF what amounts to a mid-cycle refresh, gently finessing the design to more closely resemble the original C-XF design concept that had inspired it—as well as the flagship XJ sedan.

Fortunately, Jaguar has kept to a light retouch of the XF; the sedan already stood out as an instant classic, with all its catlike curves and classic sport-sedan proportions. A revised front-end look, with a larger, more upright grille, slim headlights alongside light strips, and a lower hoodline with a power bulge give the XF a wide-looking, more purposeful stance, while tail lamps get LED lighting and a new chrome blade. Inside, the XF still looks like its design spirit is in line with a chic London hotel; thankfully, Jaguar has only added a new steering wheel, new nav and infotainment screens, redesigned seats, and a few new trim pieces. There remains nothing heavy-handed or retro about the look, and especially in top-performance XFR the look and feel could be taken as that of an Aston Martin. This year, XFR sedans now get better differentiated from base XF models, with a more complete sporty bodykit, redesigned 20-inch wheels, and a subtle rear diffuser.

The 2012 Jaguar XF models remain offered with three different powertrains, called out with XF, XF Supercharged, and XFR high-performance models. Last year the XF got a very substantial 85-hp boost, with a new standard 5.0-liter V-8 replacing the previous 4.2-liter one. The result is stunning, confident performance, even from the base car, with a brawly, baritone exhaust note that's assertive but doesn't get in the way. High-performance XFR and XF Supercharged models both get a 5.0-liter supercharged V-8—making 470 hp in the Supercharged and 510 hp in the XFR. All three engines send power to the rear wheels via a six-speed automatic transmission with paddle shifters, rocketing the XFR to 60 mph in just 4.7 seconds, while even the standard XF can get to 60 in 5.5 seconds.

Throughout the lineup, the XF delivers tactile satisfaction and has an understated, graceful feel from behind the wheel that will often have you thinking you're not moving as quickly as you are. During normal driving, shifts are smooth and perfectly muted, but the personality changes during enthusiastic driving and the attitude sharpens. Well-weighted, direct steering and capable brakes add up to a joyful driving experience. With 20-inch tires and electronic systems like Active Differential Control and Adaptive Dynamics shuffling power between the rear wheels and adjusting suspension and steering firmness, the 5,000-pound Jaguar XF out-nimbles some of the lighter sedans in its class.

If we had to pick a single weakness for the XF, it's that the swoopy roofline and profile has a price—and that's an especially small back seat. The XF is packaged more like a four-door coupe than a family sedan, which limits backseat space, but the trunk is large for the class, and the rear seats fold down for access to the trunk. If that isn't a deal-breaker, there's lots to swoon over, with lavish materials that, like the new XJ, set a new high-water mark for Jaguar. The seat design itself is new for 2012, with dash buttons and switchgear getting a black-paint finish, but the distinctive puck-shaped shifter knob (which rises from the center console on startup) and vents that rotate outward at startup, remain. No matter where you're sitting you're surrounded by high-grade leather and other warm, soft materials.

In the same way that it delivers its refined performance, the Jaguar XF is a sport sedan, yet surrounds you with serious luxury-car features. Audio systems have been completely revamped for 2012 and include an all-new 1200-watt surround sound system from Bowers & Wilkins at the top. All models have two USB ports, Bluetooth connectivity, and built-in music storage. The XF also gets Interactive Voice control, and a new full-color TFT information display.

Standard equipment in the 2012 XF includes a sunroof; automatic climate control; a keyless entry and ignition system; an electronic parking brake; leather upholstery and walnut trim; a heated steering wheel; and active cruise control.

Social Deixis

Social deixis does not deal with three main components (person, place and time) of the coordinate system of subjective orientation, but they show how different social rankings and the participants of communication utter relationships within society via language. Briefly, it is rather to refer to the level of relationship between people than to information.

Levinson (1983, p.90) stated that social deixis concerns with the aspects of sentences which reflect or establish or determined by certain realities of participants or the social situation in which the speech event occurs. He adds that there are two basic kinds of social deixis information that seems to be encoded in language around the world. They are: Relational social deixis and Absolute social deixis. Relational social deixis is a deictic reference to some social characteristic of referrent apart from any relative ranking of referents or deictic reference to a social relationship between the speaker and addressee. In English, relational social deixis may be a lexical items (e.g. my husband, teacher, cousin, etc), pronouns (you, her). Absolute social deixis is a deictic reference usually expressed in certain forms of address which will include no comparison of the ranking of the speaker and addresse. For examples: your highness, Mr. President, your majesty, etc.

Briefly, social deixis is a deictic expression used to distinct social status. Social deixis separated in to two kinds relational and absolute social deixis.
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 A. Person Deixis

B. Place Deixis

C. Time Deixis

D. Discourse Deixis

E. Social Deixis
 ...................................................................................
See also:
Deixis

Time Deixis

Time deixis is also called as temporal deixis. Renkema (1993, p.79) stated that time deixis is a reference to time relative to a temporal reference point and it is typically the moment of utterance. These language resources are the adjectives of time in the line….yesterday….now….tomorrow, and the verb tenses. The verb sometimes also has another function besides referring to a specific time.

Furthermore, Levinson (1993, p.73) said that the basis for systems of reckoning and measuring time in most languages seem to be the natural and prominent cycles of day and night, lunar months, season and years.

While, Grundy (2000, p.31-32) states another important time deixis is tense system. In fact, almost every sentence makes reference to an event time. Often this event time can only be determined in relation to the time of the utterance. Moreover, Yule (1996, 14-15) says that the basic type of temporal deixis in English is in the choice of verb tense. English only has two basic forms, the present and the past. For example:
a. I live here now.
b. I live there then.
The present tense is the proximal form as in (a) and the past tense is distal form as in (b).

The deictic items use reference can only be determined in relation to the time of the utterance in which they occur. Such as:
• This / last / next Monday / week / month / year.
• Now, then, ago, later, soon, before.
• Yesterday, today, tomorrow.
In other words, time deixis is an expression in relation to point to certain period when the utterances produced by the speaker.

 A. Person Deixis

B. Place Deixis

C. Time Deixis

D. Discourse Deixis

E. Social Deixis
 ...................................................................................
See also:
Deixis

Place Deixis

Place deixis is also described as spatial deixis, where the relative location of people and things is being indicated. Place deixis or spatial deixis usually expressed in this, these, there, here, that, and those. Place deixis can be described along many of the same parameters that apply to the time deixis. Therefore, those references to place can be absolute or relational in nature. Absolute references to place locate an object or person in a specific longitude and latitude, while relational references locate people and place in terms of each other and the speaker (Cummings 2005, p.26).

Levinson (1983, p.79) stated that place or space deixis concerns for the specification of locations to anchorage points in the speech event and typically the speaker, and there are two basic ways of referring objects by describing or naming them on the one hand and by locating them on the other. Alternatively, they can be deictically specified to the location of participants at the time of speaking. There are a proximal (close to the speaker) such as this, and these, and a distal (sometime close to the addressee) such as that, and those. Each may be used either as a pronoun or in a combination with noun.

Grundy (2000, p.28) add that there are three degrees of proximity is by no means uncommon, with some languages distinguishing proximity to the speaker and to the addressee. They are: here (proximal), there (distal), where (and the archaic hither, hence, thither, thence, wither, whence), left, right, up, down, above, below, in front, behind, come go, bring, and  take.

Briefly, place deixis is an expression used to show the location relative to the location of a participant in the speech even.

 A. Person Deixis

B. Place Deixis

C. Time Deixis

D. Discourse Deixis

E. Social Deixis
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See also:
Deixis

Deixis Theory Proposed by Stephen C. Levinson

There are four kinds of deixis proposed by Levinson, they are:
A. Person Deixis
In many languages, person deixis can also contain other meaning elements like the gender of the third person. In addition, to pronoun and agreeing predicates, person, or participant-role is marked in various other ways. Person deixis concerns with the encoding of the role of participants in the speech even in which the utterance in question is delivered. Yule (1996, p.9-10) describe that person deixis involves the speaker and the addressee and operates in a basic three-part division they are:

a) First person (I). The first person deixis is a reference that refers to the speaker or both speaker and referent grouped with the speaker which is expressed in singular pronouns (I, me, myself, mine) and plural pronouns (we, us, ourselves, our, ours). The first person deixis can be divided into exclusive first person deixis, which refers to a group including addressee.

b) Second person (you). The second person deixis is a deictic reference to a person or persons identified as addressee, such as you, yourself, yourselves, your, yours.

c) And the third person (He, She, It). Third person deixis is a deictic reference to a referent(s) not identified as the speaker or addressee and usually imply to the gender that the utterance refers to, for example: he, she, and they, him, himself, her, herself.

Renkema (1993, p.77) adds that person deixis is realized with personal pronouns. The speaker as the first person (I) direct the utterance to the listener as second person (You), and conclude be talking about a third person (He, She, and It).

In other words, person deixis is described as expression in which to refer to person who the speakers intend to refer.

 A. Person Deixis

B. Place Deixis

C. Time Deixis

D. Discourse Deixis

E. Social Deixis
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See also:
Deixis

Deixis

Deixis deals with connections between discourse and the situation in which discourse is used. The term of ‘deixis’ is derived from the Greek word which mean ‘to show’ or ‘to indicate’ used to denote the elements in a language which refer directly to the situation. Moore (2001, 14) give definition about deixis as follows:

"Deixis is an important field of language study in its own right and very important for learners of languages. But it has some relevance to analysis of conversation and pragmatics. It is often and best described as "verbal pointing", that is to say pointing by means of language. The linguistic forms of this pointing are called deictic expressions, deictic markers or deictic words; they are also sometimes called indexicals."

Moreover, deixis is a technical term (from Greek) for one of the most basic things we do with utterance. Or it can be said ‘pointing’ via language. Essentially language, deixis concerns with the ways in which the interpretation of utterance depends on the analysis of that context of utterance.

In English, according to Yule (1996, p.93) there are three different ways to point out in. They are gesture, symbolic and anaphoric. Gesture is used by which it can be properly interpreted only by somebody who is monitoring some physical aspects of communication situation. Example: I want you to copy this paper. Symbolic use of deictic expression means that the interpretation involves merely knowing certain aspects of the speech communication situation, whether this knowledge comes by common perception or not. For example: I want you to put the paper there. Anaphoric is the use of expression that can be correctly interpreted by knowing what other portions of the same discourse that expression is co-referential with anaphoric use of an expression, which can be seen in the sentence; I have copied the paper and I put it there.


A. Person Deixis

B. Place Deixis

C. Time Deixis

D. Discourse Deixis

E. Social Deixis
 ...................................................................................
See also:
Deixis